A container used for drinking water is a common household item. Its shape and size varies across regions. The following words were elicited for the container shown in the image below. pela, pʰulpatrə, waṭi, ɡlas, kəp, səmpuṭ, loṭa, ǰʰakən, ɡəḍwa, čəmbu, kəṭori, ɡəḍu, ɡəñǰ, jamb, etc. The geographical spread of these words is given below. (The words are roughly ordered from the most frequently received word to the less frequently recorded words in the SDML survey.)

The following words were elicited for the concept ‘slanting roof’ (utərte čʰəppər) in different dialects of Marathi: kəul, kəulə, kəularu, kəyelu, kəwəl, kəwel, kəwela, kəwlai, koylu, kəula, kəwlər, kəular, kəwlari, kolaru, kəulacə ɡr, čʰəppər, čʰəpər, cʰprya, čʰəprə, čʰpra, cəppra, čʰəpri, čʰəppərus, səpar, səpre, səpri, šəppər, səppri, səppre, səppər, səpər, səppar, səprya, səpra, čʰət, čət, šət, čʰetrə, sət,cʰet, kʰaprel, kʰapər, kʰapri, kaprya,kʰapran, bilayət kʰəprel, dʰabə, dʰaba, dʰawa, aḍ, aḍa, alə, ara, həḍ, haḍya, pak ,paka, pakẽ, pak, don pakki, pakʰə, pakʰa, pakʰi, pakk, pakya, pəkkʰya, pakʰaḍya, pakaḍi, morpak, nəḷya, nḷiya, nəriye, tin, šeḍ, wərən, wərni, šiwar, koṭa, rupkam, maḷwəd, šawni, čʰawni, sani, pəḍwi, mowuḷe, moḷ, səǰǰa, ṭpra, ṭəpera, saywan, saywər, pədəḍi, dol, ḍʰape, ḍʰapə, səlap, mawṭi, mawtʰi, plaḍ, manḍəṇ, kuṭaru, moɡe, jʰakan, ṭiba, pansər, mʰaḷət, saṭa, mɡri, dʰai, ɡʰone, wəynaṭ, ura šṭan,tʰətṭtyar, kʰopḍi, kəbelu paṭən, təsma, mətʰan etc.

A roof (čʰət/čʰppər) serves as a protective covering on the top of a house, shielding it from the sun, wind, and rain. The geographical structure of Maharashtra gives rise to two distinct types of roof structures in various districts: slanting roofs and flat roofs. Flat roofs are predominantly found in regions with lower rainfall. The following variations were observed for this concept in different dialects of Marathi in Maharashtra:

‘Bolt (kəḍi in the standard dialect of Marathi) is a device that is used to shut the door in a modern house. For this concept, the words kəḍi, kəḍikoyṇda are commonly used throughout Maharashtra. The following words were reported as its variants in various geographical locations: kəḍi, koḍi, kəri, kəḷi, kərči, kəḍči kəḍikoyəṇḍa, kḍikoṇḍa, kḍikoṇḍka, kʷəyṇḍa, koyṇḍa, koṇḍa, koṇḍo, koṇḍe, koṇdka, koenḍa, kəḍokoṇḍo, kʰoṇḍya, kəwəḍ koṇḍa, sakʰəḷ,sakəḷi sakʰ(ə)ḷi, səṅkəl, səṅkəli, sakʰri, sakri, sakḍi, sakyi, sakḷikonḍa, sakərkoṇḍa, kulaba, kulabi, kulapa, kulup, koṇḍi,kuṇḍi, ɡuṇḍi, aḍna,adṇi,.

‘Bolt’ (aḍna) is a type of lock or a device/ contraption that was used to shut doors in the olden days. The following words were recorded in the Survey of Dialects of the Marathi Language (SDML) to refer to this object: kəḍi, koyəṇḍa, aɡəḷ, aḍna, aḍɡuna, kʰiṭti, kʰəṭka, danḍka, adsər, aḍči, bijiɡiri, micɡarya, ṭicəkni, sakrya səṅkəlkəḍi, pəṭtikəḍi, ḍambrya, makḍi, kutrə, ɡʰodi, majərbokya,huk, cap, kʰanduk, kʰəḍk etc.

The following variations have been observed for the concept of broom in different dialects of Marathi: kʰərʰaṭa,kʰṭṭa, krʰaṭa, kʰəroṭa, kʰraṭo jʰaḍu, jaḍu, jaru, jʰalu, ǰʰadu, bʰutari, butari,bʰokri, bokʰri, bokʰrya, bokri, bahri, bʰara, baḍi, bəhara, bahəru, bʰyəḍo, saḷuta, saḷta, saḷati, salu, salota, səḷota, səraṭa, səraṭi, san, sarən, sarəṇ, ssuni, pʰəḍa,

The following words were reported in Maharashtra to refer to the concept of a floor broom in a modern-style house: jʰaḍu, jaḍu, ǰaḍu, jʰaru, jʰaḷu, jʰadi, jaru, jʰaḍwən, jʰaḍwa, sindica jʰadu, sindica jʰadu sṭail jʰaḍu, pʰuljʰadu, saḷujʰaḍu, jʰaḍni, jʰaḍna, jʰaḷni, ǰʰanni, jaṇṇo, kʰəraṭa, kʰəṭṭa, kirsuni, kersuni, kərsunḍi, kersuli, pʰəḍa, pʰədi, bahəri, bʰara, bahra, baro, bayri, baheri, bʰaḍi, baḍi, baḍi, bera, bʰayḍi, boəri, baɡ bahəri,

‘Broom’ (jʰaḍu) is a common household object typically used for cleaning old fashioned houses. The following words were noted in the Survey of Dialects of the Marathi Language to refer to this household object: pʰəḍa, pʰəḷa, jʰau, kersuni, ǰʰaḍṇi, jʰadṇi, jʰaḍni, širai bəhara, širaw, maṅɡači širaw, irawi, iray, šira, saḷuta, ləkšimi, bahri, bəhari, bahari, bʰahri, bohri, moḷ, moli butari, bʰutari, butarə, sata, kʰəraṭa, kʰərʰaṭi, kʰəroṭa, kʰəraṭo, saḷati, jʰanni, ǰʰanni, jʰaḷnni, bʰara, bʰari, bʰarə, baro, mol,

‘Broom’ (jaḍu) is a small-sized broom used to clean stone mills (jatə) and dewhara, a wooden case for idols worshipped inside the house. The following variation was noted for this concept in different regions of Maharashtra:

The following words were elicited for the concept of colocasia leaves in different dialects of Marathi in Maharashtra, əḷu, aḷu, yelu, aḍuči pan poti, čimkura, cəmkura, dʰopa, dʰoba, koci, tera, teri, tere, teḍa, patra, patʰra, bərmarakəs, ɡatiye, ɡʰatya, ɡʰaṭyači panə, deṭʰi, ɡəḍara, ərəṭ, paṭonna, patoḍyači panə, ɡuya, ahəlya panə, doḍa, besrəm, etc.

‘Sponge gourd’ is a species of vine native to the tropical regions of northern Africa and Asia. It produces a fruit that has a smooth outer texture and a cylindrical shape resembling that of a cucumber. The tender fruit is used for culinary purposes while the dried fruit serves as a natural exfoliating scrubber for bathing.

The following names were reported in the Survey of Dialects of the Marathi Language for the vegetable ‘Bottle Gourd in various regions of the state of Maharashtra: dudʰibʰopla, dudʰi, bʰopḷa, ləwki, kəddu, muɡaḍi, mʰaro dudʰi, tumma, səkeni, koṭʰḷe/koṇṭḷya, parsə fdoḍkə, hrsul, ḍaṅɡḍa, etc.

The following words were noted in various parts of the state to refer to the vegetable ‘ridged gourd’ (širaḷe/doḍke). The word doḍka and its phonetic variants were noted in almost all the districts of Maharashtra. Along with this, širaḷə and other similar words were recorded in Ratnagiri, Palghar, Raigad, and Thane districts of Konkan region; in Devgad taluka of Sindhudurg district; in specific talukas like Trimbakeshwar and Surgana of Nashik district and in Mulshi taluka of Pune district. širaca doḍka, sir doḍka and phonetically similar variants were attested in:

Pumpkin is a type of vine plant with large orange-coloured fruits. This fruit vegetable is known by different names in different districts of Maharashtra depending on its size, taste, color, location, and culinary use, such as čəkri bʰopla, ɡʰaɡri bopḷa, ɡoḍ bopḷa, sakʰər kohəḷa, lal bʰopḷa, kaḷa bʰopḷa, pəraḷi bʰopḷa, šikrəṇ bʰopḷa, kašikohḷə, pənḍərpuri koyrə, ɡəṅɡapʰəḷ, etc.

The vegetable ‘bell pepper’ is referred to by various names in different parts of Maharashtra: šimla mirči, ḍʰəbbu mirči, ḍʰobḷi mirči, bʰopḷa mirči, pʰopʰeri mirči, bʰoṅɡi mirči poṅɡli mirči, čəpata mirči, srkari mirči, mʰatari mirči, ḍəɡər mirči, ṭəpori mirči, beṇḍi mirči, etc. Words such as ḍəbbu, dobḷi, bʰopḷa, moṭʰi, jaḍi, ṭəpori refer to the shape of the bell pepper wheresas the words šimla mirci, wilayəti mirči,

The following variation was observed in regional varieties of Marathi in the SDML survey to refer to the vegetable ‘drumstick’. šewɡa, šewɡyača šeṅɡa, šewɡyaci šeṅɡ, šewa šeṅɡo, šewɡan šeṅɡo, šeɡu, šenɡa, šewana šeṅɡa, muṅɡna, munɡṇa, muṅɡnyača šeṅa, muṅɡnyaka šeṅɡan, muɡuniča seṅɡa, muṅapʰlli, munɡpʰəḷi, šekṭə, šegṭ, seɡṭani seṅɡ, šəpʰəlli, šekṭači šeṅɡ, šekṭača šenɡa, , šeɡul, šeɡlača šenɡa, šeɡul ki pʰəlli, ḍamba, ḍambə, ḍambyača

The following words were noted in the survey conducted in various parts of the state of Maharashtra to refer to the tuber Sweet potato’ (rətaḷə):rətaḷ, rəttaḷə, rəttal, rətal, rətaḷi, rətalo, rətela, rəttalə,

A number of deictic terms were recorded in the 'Survey of Dialects of the Marathi Language (SDML)' to refer to the space in front of the speaker.They are as follows: səmor, səmur, səmbur, səmburə, səmbor,

Throughout Maharashtra, the following variations were documented for the concept ‘behind / at the back of‘: maɡə, mae, maɡoma, maɡun, maɡʰ, magʰarši, magʰari, maṅɡari, maṅɡari, maṅɡi, paṭimaɡe, paṭʰimaɡə, paṭʰimaɡ, paṭʰimaɡe, paṭʰimaɡə, paṭimaɡ, paṭʰi, paṭʰiši, patʰikəḍ, patikəḍe, paṭʰikəḍə, paṭkəḍe, pʰaṭsun, pʰaṭlyan

In languages, specific words are used to indicate the correlation and direction of a person, object, or place in relation to a reference point. These words are referred to as locative/deictic words. The provided note highlights a variety of words that were noted for the concepts of 'above,' 'in the middle/midst,' and 'below' in different dialects of Marathi.

The temporal deictic expressions for the concepts ‘current day’, ‘past day and ‘coming day’ show a three-way distinction in the standard variety of Marathi. It has the word aj for the concept ‘current day’, udya for the concept ‘coming day’, and kal for the concept past day’. Hindi language, on the other hand, only shows a two-way distinction as it does not have separate lexical items for the concepts ‘past day’ and ‘coming day’. In Maharashtra, the north-western and northern regions are adjacent to the Gujarati and Hindi speaking states; in addition,

Directional words in the Marathi language show a lot of variation in the regional varieties. The topography of the region and the worldview of the speakers are two important factors that seem to influence the use of directional words. The perspective that the sun rises ‘below’ and sets ‘above’ was observed in all the districts surveyed. To refer to the ‘direction in which the sun rises’ the following lexical variants were reported: purwə, kʰaltə, uwt, kʰallakəḍ uɡwəti, kʰalti, heṭya, heṭṭa, kalyanɡə, kʰaltikəḍə, kʰaltyali, suryəmukʰ, ɡəṅekəḍ, əṅɡamʰorə,

The quantitative or numerical adjectives in Marathi have subtypes like enumerative, frequency, and indefinite. For the concepts of “many/a lot” or “less/ a little, the following variations are observed across Maharashtra.

A variety of words were noted in the regional varieties of Marathi to refer to one’s male and female offspring: mulɡa-muli, porɡa-porɡi, lyok-lek, anḍor-aṇḍer, ǰʰil-čedu, lekus- lekis, poša-poši, sohra-sohri, beṭa-beṭi, ḍikra- ḍikri, poyro-poyri, čedo-čedu, čʰora-čori, tura- ṭuri, , poṭṭə-poṭṭi, čʰokra-čʰokri, putus- dʰuwəs, lekru-lekri, kartə -karṭi, čʰokro-čokri, čʰoro- čori, puray-puriyo, həppa-niɡri etc. Other words noted include porya, bʰurɡe, čirəñǰiw for ‘son’ and similarly, the words received for ‘daughter’ include por, pori, bay, tarai, kuñjai, etc. The use of the words lek and por was observed to refer to both ‘son’ and ‘daughter.

The lexical items for the concept ‘husband and wife’ show significant variation across regions. The following words were elicited for the concept ‘husband and wife’: nwra-bayko, pəti-pətni, malək-malkin, karbʰari-karbarin, ʰo-bayəl, ɡʰərwala-ʰərwali, dʰəni-rdʰanɡini, hoḍas-hoḍis, wəḍas-bayls, mərəd-aurət, miya-bibi, mistər-mises, həjbəṇḍ-waipʰ, etc. In addition, the words dadla, laḍa, bayləs, sajən, saheb, yəjman, wər, bəwa, maṭi, etc.

For the concepts of ‘Egos father’s younger sister/ ego’s father’s elder sister, the word atya was noted throughout Maharashtra. Dhongde (2013:75) mentions the words atya, attya, akka, mawḷəṇ, and pʰui for this kinship term.

The words kaka and mama were noted for the concepts ‘ego’s father’s younger sister’s husband and ego’s father’s elder sister’s husband throughout Maharashtra. For this kin relation, mama, mamaǰi, pʰupʰa, pʰupa, pua, pʰuwa, pʰopʰa, pʰupʰaǰI, pʰəpʰa, pʰuppa, kaka, ateymama, atoba, attoba, atemama, atto, ato, atoyi, atwya, atoi, atui, attui, atuba, pʰiyaǰi, pʰiya, pʰuya, pʰuaǰi, pʰuwo, pʰuo, mawḷa, mawəḷ, mamas, atyaǰi, ətyanǰi, əttyaǰi, bʰauǰi, baoǰi, əṅkəl, kakapay, mawsa, mawso, nəndwis, nəndəi, kakus, mamañǰi, bʰaiǰan, tiway, atwa, dʰakos, čulta, baṭwa, mamoi, buwamama, etc. variants were recorded.

For the concept of “ego’s mother’s younger/elder brother and ego’s mother’s younger/elder brother’s wife,” the words mama and mami were reported in almost all the districts of Maharashtra. In this survey, mama, mawḷa, mawḷo, mamu, mamo, mamus, mamas, kakas, mamaǰi, əṅkəl, pəitiw, mamosa, puwa, pʰupa, bawa, etc.

For the concepts ‘elder sister’s husband and ‘younger sister’s husband, a variety of words were recorded in different parts of Maharashtra. mewʰṇa, mʰewna, mewna, mewṇa, mewʰna, mewno, mʰewne, mehuna, mʰeuna, mewne, mewʰne, mehune, mewʰuna, mewʰənə, mewʰune, dʰakla mewna, moṭa mewna, mewnə, meune, mewnə, mehuno, moṭʰa mewna, mewne, mehnəs, mehnas, mehwna, moṭʰa mehəna, mihnas,

The following words were reported in various regions of Maharashtra to refer to the concepts ‘wife’s elder brother and ‘wife’s younger brother: mʰewna, mewʰne, mewʰna, mʰewne, bʰauǰi, mewnə, mewna, mewnə, mewʰṇa, mewno, saḍu, mewne, mehuna, mʰeuna, sala, daǰi, mehune, mẽwʰəna, mewʰənə, mewʰəna, mewʰuna, mewne, mama, pahune, lahan miwne, moṭʰe miwne, dakla mewna, moṭa mewna, barka mewna, motṭa mewna, mewunə, mehnas, mehwəna, mehəna, mehuno, mehunjanu, meuna,

The words reported to refer to the concepts ego’s father's elder brother and ‘ego’s father's elder brother's wife’ show variation in different regions of Maharashtra. The following words were noted for the concept ‘ego’s father's elder brother: culta, kaka, moṭʰa baba, moṭʰe wəḍil, moṭa bap

The words reported to refer to the kin relationship ‘mother’s elder sister or ‘mother’s younger sister show variation in different regions of Maharashtra. The kinship term mawši was reported widely in all districts of Maharashtra. In addition, the following words were noted for this concept in different dialects of Marathi: mauši, moṭʰi mauši masi, mosi,

The following variants were noted in different regions of Maharashtra to refer to ‘husband’s mother’s brother: mamsasre, mama, kaka, sasre, wəḍil, baba, bap, culta, moṭʰa ba, bako, mawḷa, mawḷe sasre, ajja pʰuysaka, bʰaswayri, etc.

For the concept of ‘husband’s elder brother the following words were reported in the Survey of Dialects of the Marathi Language: dir, jeṭʰ,der, bʰasra, dewr, baya, bʰawsasra, bʰawla, bʰawji, daǰi, etc.

For the concept of ‘husband’s elder brother’s wife, the following words were reported in the survey of dialects of the marathi language: jau, ǰeṭʰani, bʰawlani, bai, bəhin, wəhini, bʰawjy, bʰabi, moṭe sasu, širyal, ḍayli, etc.

The following words were reported frequently in Maharashtra to refer to the concept ‘husband’s younger brother: dir, der, dewər, derus, bawǰi, bʰau, bʰausab, etc. The word dir was reported widely in western maharashtra, Marathwada and Konkan region while it was observed infrequently in the rest of Maharashtra. The word der was

The following words were elicited for the concept ‘husband’s younger brother’s wife in the survey of dialects of the marathi language: jau, derani, bəhin, bʰabʰi, sun, wəhini, kʰoni, bʰawlin, etc.

Numerous lexical variants were reported throughout maharashtra for the concept of male ego’s brother's son. The word putnya was widely reported for male ego’s brother’s son. Phonetic variation of this word includes putnya, putno, putnyo, putṇyo, putṇo, putṇa, putna, etc. Likewise, the words used to introduce one's own son were also reported for this particular relation too.

For the concept of ‘female ego’s brother’s son, the word bʰaca was widely reported in Maharashtra. Similarly, the words ǰawi, dʰaḍya were also reported. Phonetic variations of bʰaca include bʰaca, bʰacca, bʰaco, bʰaṅja, bʰasa, bʰaso, baše, bʰaša, basas, bʰačas, bʰacəs etc. Other than this

The following variants were recorded for the concept of male ego’s brother’s daughter: putṇi, mulɡi, dʰwaḍi, porɡi, ḍikri, lek, sohəri, beṭi sun and bʰañǰi, bʰtiǰi, bʰətəri, etc. The word putṇi was reported throughout Maharashtra for male ego’s brother’s daughter. putni was elicited as a phonetic variant of this word.

The word bʰači was observed throughout Maharashtra for the concept of Female ego’s brother’s daughter. bʰaci, bʰaši, baši, bʰasi, bʰacis, bʰacis, bʰače, bʰacči etc. were the phonetic variants reported for this word.

Respondents in the survey of dialects of the marathi language’ reported the words bʰaca, jawəi, bʰañǰa, and bʰtiǰa to refer to the concept of ‘male ego’s sister’s son.’ Further, several other words were also sporadically observed for this relation. They are discussed in detail below.

For the concept of female ego’s sister’s son, words such as mula, lyok, bəhinlyok, porɡa, anḍor, ǰija aṇḍor,, putṇya, bəhiṇbeṭa, etc. were reported. Apart from this, bʰanǰa, and bətiǰa were also reported. Similarly, a few other words were elicited sporadically to refer to this concept. Details about their use are given below.

For the concept ‘male ego’s sister’s daughter, words such as bʰači, sun, pañǰi, sadərsəši, etc. were elicited in different parts of Maharashtra. Apart from these, bʰətiǰi, nat, ḍikri were also reported for this kin relationship.

To refer to the concept of a female ego’s sister’s daughter, the following words were reported in various parts of maharashtra: lek, mulɡi, porɡi, əṇḍer, putni, bəhiṇlek, bhiṇbeṭi, bəhinisni sohəri, mawəs lek, etc. Other than this, bʰətiji, nat, and ḍikri were also noted for this relation. bəhinlek was noted to refer to both sister’s son and sister’s daughter.

The word sasu is observed for both the concepts ego’s husband’s mother and ‘ego’s wife’s mother in all districts of maharashtra. The following variation was noted for the two concepts in different dialects of Marathi:

The following words were noted in different dialects of Marathi for the concepts ‘ego’s husband’s father’ and ‘ego’s wife’s father: sasra, sasre, səsro(s), sasros, sasrebuwa, səsur, soɡ, səsurǰi, susraǰi, susro, susər, susra, sasrə, mama, mamaǰi, mamaǰinu, maw, mao, pʰuwaǰi, yəhi, dəlla, həro, hahəra, haora, hawro, əkkdsasra, etc.

The following words were noted in various geographical regions of maharashtra for the concepts ‘ego’s daughter’s mother-in-law’, ‘ego’s son’s mother-in-law’, ego’s daughter’s father-in-law and ‘ego’s son’s father-in-law’. Let us look at them in detail.

Both the accusative object and the dative object in a standard marathi sentence are marked by the same suffixal form.

The instrumental case typically marks the semantic role of an instrument (Narrog 2008: 593). Palancar (2002: 32)

The ablative case markers are often used to encode the argument of motion verbs specifying the source.

The genitive is an adnominal case whose core function is to mark a nominal whose referent (possessor) is connected by a possessive

The genitive is an adnominal case whose core function is to mark a nominal whose referent (possessor) is connected by a possessive relation to the individual expressed by the phrase within which the genitive phrase is embedded (possessum).

The locative case indicates a location. In the standard marathi sentence mi mumbəit rahte (I Mumbai-in live) the suffix [-t] indicates the locative (inessive) case relation.

The present habitual refers to an action that occurs habitually, ordinarily or customarily in the present time.

Case syncretism refers to the correspondence between a single inflected form and two or more case functions

The past progressive form of the verb in the sentence refers to an action in the past time which was ongoing/incomplete/in progression

The present progressive form of the verb in the sentence refers to an action in the present time which is ongoing/incomplete/in progression

The past habitual is a verb aspect that is used to refer to repeated actions in the past time.

Grammatical aspect is a grammatical category that refers to the internal temporal constituency of a situation or an event

The verb in an imperfective clause in standard Marathi agrees with the number and gender of the third person singular subject NP

The predicative use of the form [-el] was noted as variant 2 of the grammatical feature Perfective Aspect

Like hindi, punjabi, gujarati, Konkani and some other New Indo-Aryan languages, standard Marathi is a split ergative language

Like hindi, punjabi, gujarati, konkani and some other New Indo-Aryan languages,